Glossary

abstract animation

An aesthetic tenet of animation which sees animation as consisting of lines, shapes and colors, abstract forms to be manipulated by the animator at will. The opposite of naturalistic animation.

act (segment)

A portion or segment of the narrative presented between commercial breaks. Consists of one or more scenes.

actor movement

Typically referred to by the theatrical term, blocking.

actualities

Events from the historical world used in news and sports programs.

additive color

In video, the combination of red, green and blue phosphors to generate all other colors.

ADR

See automatic dialogue replacement.

Advanced Television Systems Committee (ATSC)

Formed in the early 1990s to set standards for U.S. digital television, including HDTV.

aesthetic

A philosophy of the beautiful; criteria which define art (or television) as good or bad. Also used to refer to determining factors of television that are neither technological or economic.

ambient sound

Background sounds of a particular room or location.

analog sound

An electronic replica of a sound wave on audio or video tape; the sound wave is converted into an electronic copy or analog. This type of sound recording is being replaced by digital sound. Vinyl albums and audio cassettes create sound through an analog process; compact discs, DVDs and digital audio tape (DAT) store sound digitally.

anamorphic

A widescreen film process (under such trademark names as CinemaScope and Panavision) used to create an image wider than conventional television's. The aspect ratio of most films made with anamorphic lenses today is 1:2.35, while the conventional television image's aspect ratio is 1:1.33.

antagonist

Character and/or situation that hinders the protagonist from achieving his or her goal(s).

anti-naturalist performance

Performance style in which the viewer is kept aware that the actor is pretending to be a character.

aperture

In terms of a narrative: a conclusion with an ambiguous ending, and/or without resolution, without answering its questions. The opposite of closure. In terms of video and film cameras: the opening through which light passes.

arcing

A term used in television studio production to refer to the semi-circular sideways movement of the camera.

aristocracy

In Marxism, the most elite social class--consisting of individuals who do not work, and hold power through inheritance: kings, queens, princes, princesses, and so on. According to Marx's analysis of history, the aristocracy controlled European countries until the bourgeoisie's rise to power in the decades after the Renaissance.

aspect ratio

The ratio of height to width of a camera screen. The conventional ratio for television has been 1:1.33 (or 3:4), but that may change to 1:1.78 (or 9:16) with the advent of high definition television.

ATSC

See Advanced Television Systems Committee.

automatic dialogue replacement (ADR)

The replacement of lines of dialogue during post-production. Also known as looping.

auteur theory

Posits that a director is the author of a film/television program in the same manner that a writer is the author of a novel. The director is seen as injecting his/her personal artistic vision into a film/television program, and, over time, certain stylistic and thematic tendencies are discernable in the body of the director's work.

axis of action

In the continuity (or 180) system, the line of action around which the space of the scene is oriented.

back light

In the three-point lighting system, the source of illumination placed behind and above the actor. Its main function is to cast light on the actor's head and shoulders, creating an outline of light around the actor to distinguish him or her from the background.

balance

In video and film, the blending of three colors (red, green, and blue in video; yellow, magenta, and cyan in film) to produce a spectrum of colors. Different video processes and film stocks favor some colors over others, resulting in various types of color balance.

base

In film production terms, the celluloid backing of a piece of film to which the emulsion adheres. In Marxist terms, a society's economic system, upon which is built its superstructure.

blocking

The actor's movement around a set; the director's incorporation of the actor into the mise-en-scene.

blue screens

On a newsroom set, areas of the background that are blue (or green), onto which live images or maps are substituted through the chroma key process.

boom operator

The sound technician who physically operates the overhead boom microphone.

bourgeoisie

In Marxist terms, the middle class; owners of the means of production and employers of the proletariat.

Brechtian performance

Anti-naturalist, confrontational performance style based in the theories of German playwright Bertolt Brecht. He demanded that the viewer constantly be made aware of the fact that he or she is watching a play and that he or she should be distanced from the characters (see distanciation).

brand parity

In the context of advertising, when all products are essentially the same. Contrast with a product' unique selling proposition.

Brechtian performance

Anti-naturalists, confrontational performance style based in the theories of German playwright Bertolt Brecht. He demanded that the viewer constantly be made aware of the fact that he or she is watching a play and that he or she should be distance from the characters (see distanciation).

brightness (luminance)

In the context of television's image quality, how bright or dark a color is.

broadcast standards and practices (BSP)

The units within TV networks that make sure offensive material is not broadcast--TV's internal censors.

bug

A small network or station logo superimposed in a corner of the frame.

camera obscura

A darkened chamber with a hole in one wall through which light enters, creating an image of the outdoors on the opposite wall. It was the earliest form of a "camera," and is where the name derives.

camera operator

The person who actually handles the film or video camera.

cardioid microphone

A unidirectional microphone with most of its sensitivity aimed toward the front, and a pickup pattern that resembles an inverted heart.

cathode ray tube (CRT)

A television picture tube. The cathode ray excites the pixels to create the video image.

cause-effect chain

In narrative structure, the way one event leads to (causes) another and is the result (effect) of a previous event.

cel (celluloid)

A transparent sheet of plastic, on which images are drawn and painted in the production of animation.

chiaroscuro

A low-key lighting style, usually in reference to theatrical productions or the dark paintings of Rembrandt.

chroma

See chrominance.

chroma key

An electronic special effects process, specific to video, making a single color (usually blue or green) transparent so that one image may be inserted into another--as in weather maps with a forecaster superimposed over them.

chrominance

The level of saturation of a color; the color's purity, how much or little grayness is mixed with it.

CinemaScope

A widescreen, anamorphic film process with an aspect ratio of 2.35 to 1.

cinematographer

The person overseeing all aspects of the film image--including lighting and the operation of the camera.

cinematography

The process of making a film image, and the characteristics of the film image.

classical Hollywood cinema (Hollywood classicism)

A conventional style of filmmaking with a particular model of narrative structure, editing technique, mise-en-scene, dialogue, music, etc. Narrative is presented in a clear cause-and-effect chain, with definite closure.

classical period

In the history of theatrical cinema, the 1920s-50s when the Hollywood studio system of film production held total power and evolved the classical style of filmmaking. In a genre's evolutionary pattern, the stage during which thematics, narrative structure and audial/visual style are solidified into firm conventions, a recognizable cohesive unit.

close miking

The positioning of a microphone very close to the performer's mouth--often used by radio and TV announcers.

close-up (CU)

A framing that presents a close view of an object or person--filling the frame and separating it or her or him from the surroundings. Conventionally, a TV close-up of a person is from the shoulders or neck up.

closure

Occurs when enigmas opened at the beginning of a program and throughout are resolved; all of the narrative's questions are answered. The opposite of aperture.

code

A set of rules; an historically and/or culturally based set of conventions.

color announcer

A type of television sports announcer; often he or she is a former athlete and/or coach, with first-hand expertise.

compositing

The post-production combination of two or more video/film/digital sources in a single image.

computer-generated imagery (CGI)

Images which are created digitally, usually through computer modeling with wireframe objects.

content analysis

An empirical method of analysis which selects a specific textual component, counts and codes the number of occurrences of this component into a statistical form, resulting in quantifiable data which usually cannot be interpreted beyond the data itself.

continuity editing (invisible editing)

A style of editing that creates a continuity of space and time out of the fragments of scenes contained in individual shots; the shots are arranged to support the progression of the story, thus editing technique does not call attention to itself.

continuity person

The person in a production responsible for maintaining consistency in all details from one shot to the next, including action, lighting, props, and costumes.

continuity system (180 system)

Set of editing conventions that evolved from Hollywood classicism, in which shots are arranged so that the viewer always has a clear sense of where the characters are and when the shot is occurring.

copyright

The exclusive legal rights to perform or sell a song, book, script, photograph, etc. To use copyrighted material (e.g., a piece of music) in a TV program, a fee or royalty must be paid the copyright holder. If there is no copyright the material may be used for free and is said to be in the public domain.

cost per mill (CPM)

The advertising rate charged to TV sponsors, which is quantified per thousand viewers. "Mil" equals "thousand," from the Latin word mile. Thus, the CPM is the cost per thousand viewers.

CPM

See cost per mil.

craning

A movement deriving its name from the mechanical crane on which a camera may be placed. A crane shot is one in which the entire camera, mounted on a crane, is swept upward or downward.

cross-fade

Akin to a dissolve, one sound fades out while the other fades in, resulting in a brief overlap.

CRT

See cathode ray tube.

cultural studies (ethnography)

A critical approach which argues that viewers decode television texts based on their specific ideological position in society; it looks at the interaction between the ideological discourses of the text and those of the viewer.

decoding

In cultural studies, the reader/viewer's interpretation of a text that has been encoded with meaning by its creators.

deep focus

When all planes (foreground, middle-ground and background) of an image are in focus.

deep space blocking

A type of blocking associated with single-camera productions, particularly those shot on location. The depth of the "set" is emphasized by the ability of one actor to be positioned near the camera and another far away; the actors may move toward one another, or participate in independent actions.

definition

In terms of the image quality of film and television, definition refers to the capability of the visual medium to separate and depict detail. Sometimes termed resolution.

demographics

The characteristics of an audience, usually broken down in terms of age, gender, income, race, etc.; used with ratings to set advertising rates.

depth of field

The range in front of and behind the focus distance that is also in focus.

Designated Market Area

Cohesive metropolitan areas that ratings companies use to define television markets.

dialogue

Speech among characters, which does not usually address the viewer. Also, a type of interview in which the voices of the interviewer and the interviewee are both heard, and both persons may be visible on camera.

diegesis

The world in which the narrative is set. In other words, the world fictional characters inhabit.

diegetic sound

Dialogue, music and sound effects that occur in the diegetic space of the television program. I.e., sound that is part of the characters' world.

diegetic space

The physical world in which the narrative action of the television program takes place.

digital audio workstation (DAW)

A computer-based system for digitally editing sound.

digital sound

A technology (e.g., CDs) that converts sound into numbers; this allows computers to process and/or change the recorded sound. It has been replacing analog sound processes (e.g., vinyl albums and audio cassettes).

digital television (DTV)

Television broadcast in a digital format--in contrast to analog formats such as NTSC and PAL. Permits HDTV, multicasting, and enhanced TV.

digital video (DV)

Any video format that relies on digital technology for recording and/or editing. For example, video recorded with a digital camera or edited on a nonlinear editing system.

digital video effects (DVE)

Special effects created with digital, computer-based technology. Compare with electronic effects.

director

A person who is in charge of a television show, on the set or in a control booth, during the actual production process.

discourse

Socially-based belief structures. The viewer brings discourses to the reading of the television text, which contains discourses that match or clash with the viewer's.

dissolve

A special effect wherein simultaneously one shot fades out as the next fades in, so that the two images briefly overlap. Often used to shift from one scene to the next.

distanciation

A technique of Brechtian performance style wherein the actor retains the sense of him/herself as an actor; thus the viewer and actor alike are distanced from the character rather than identifying with it.

DMA

See designated market area.

dolly

A wheeled camera support which permits a rolling camera movement. In conventional television usage, dollying refers to forward or backward movement and trucking (which is accomplished with a dolly) refers to sideways movement.

dominant ideology

In Marxism, the system of beliefs about the world propagated and supported by the society's ruling class.

DTV

See digital television.

dubbing

The replacement of one voice for another.

DV

See digital video.

DVD

A disc the size of an audio CD that can store a feature-length film and include interactive features. There's no consensus on what "DVD" stands for, but when it was introduced to the consumer market in 1997 it was known variously as the "digital video disc" and the "digital versatile disc."

DVE

See digital video effects.

dynamic range

A range of sounds from soft to loud. A measurement of the limits of microphones, recording and playback machines, and other audio equipment.

Editech

The first electronic editing system for videotape--invented and marketed by Ampex.

effects theory

A type of communication theory (e.g., hypodermic needle concept) which proposes that, because viewers are passive, television directly affects them.

electron gun

A mechanical device, located in the rear of a television's picture tube, which fires an electron beam at the pixels, scanning line-by-line across the lines of the television image, causing the pixels to glow and create the television image.

electronic effects

Special effects (including fades, dissolves and keying) created on video using an analog special effects generator. Compare with digital video effects (DVE).

electronic news gathering (ENG)

The video recording of news events or actualities.

emotional memory

Technique of method acting wherein the actor draws upon memories of previous emotions that match the emotions of the character.

empiricism

A theoretical approach which advocates the understanding of a problem through systematic and controlled observation/experimentation, with research results measured and expressed in numbers and formulas.

emulsion

The mixture of photosensitive chemicals with a gelatin medium attached to the base of a piece of film.

encoding

In cultural studies, the creation of meaning within a text by a cultural institution such as the television industry. Readers/viewers may decode these preferred meanings when exposed to texts, or they may take a position opposing them.

ENG

See electronic news gathering.

enhanced TV

In digital TV, the addition of interactive functions to standard TV programs.

epic theater

Brechtian theory of theatrical presentation in which the viewer is alienated from the character.

establishing shot

A long shot which positions the character within his or her environment, and helps to establish the setting.

expository mode

Mode of television that presents an argument about the historical world; the "facts" of that world are assertively or even aggressively selected and organized and presented to the viewer in a direct address.

exterior scenes

Scenes set outdoors, often in particular location settings.

extreme close up (XCU)

A framing that presents a view closer than a conventional close-up--e.g., a shot of an eye that fills the entire screen.

extreme long shot (XLS)

A framing that presents a distant view of an object or person--e.g., an aerial shot of a car on a street.

eyeline match

An editing principle of the continuity system which begins with a shot of a character looking in a specific direction, then cuts to a second shot which shows the area toward which the character was looking.

fade out/fade in

A special effect often used for scene-to-scene transition. In a fade out the image darkens until the screen is black. In a fade in, the image starts out black and then gradually becomes visible.

false consciousness

In Marxist terms, a counterfeit image of the world determined by one's social class.

feminism

A critical approach which concentrates on gender discourse, the manner in which the male-female relationship is portrayed.

fill light

In the three-point lighting system, a source of illumination used to fill the shadows created by the key light. It is directed obliquely toward the actor from the opposite side of the key light, at approximately the same height (or a little lower), and is generally half as bright as the key light.

film stock

The specific type of film used to record images.

filter

In lighting, a colored gel placed in front of a light source. In cinematography or videography, an optical device (colored, polarized, etc.) attached to the lens.

fine grain

A type of film stock in which the grain is smaller, resulting in a higher image definition.

flashback

A disruption of the chronological presentation of events, in which an event from the past is presented in a program's present. See flashforward.

flashforward

A disruption of the chronological presentation of events, in which an event from the future is presented in a program's present. See flashback.

flow

Television's sequence of programs, commercials, news breaks, and so on. The overall flow of television is segmented into small parcels, which often bear little logical connection to one another.

focal length

The distance from the lens' optical center to its focal point, usually measured in millimeters. There are three conventional types of focal length: wide angle, normal, and telephoto.

focal plane

The plane within a film camera where the light strikes the film.

focal point

In a camera lens, that spot where the light rays, bent by the lens, converge before expanding again and striking the film or electronic pickup at the focal plane.

focus

The adjustment of the camera lens so that the image is sharp and clear.

focus distance

The distance from the camera to the object being focused on.

Foley

A post-production process wherein sound effects are fabricated for a filmed/videotaped scene while the Foley artist watches a shot projected on a screen.

format

In film, refers to the film width itself and is measured in millimeters (e.g., super-8, 16mm and 35mm). In videotape, the combination of the width of the tape, measured in inches, (e.g., 1/2", 3/4" and 1") and the process used to store the images on tape (e.g., VHS, Beta).

framing

Determines what the viewer can and cannot see due to the manipulation of the camera frame (the edge of the image).

frequency response

A range of sound frequencies from low to high. A measurement of the limits of microphones, recording and playback machines, and other audio equipment.

function

In narrative study, a single action or character attribute. Based in Russian Formalism and the work of Vladimir Propp.

gel

A piece of plastic or gelatin placed in front of a light source to change its color.

genre

Groupings of television programs defined by their narrative structure, thematic content, and style of sound and image.

grain

The silver halide crystals suspended in the emulsion of a piece of film. When struck by light and chemically processed, these crystals change color, resulting in the film image. The smaller the grain, the higher the definition of the image (i.e., the sharper the image).

hand-held

A technique in which the camera is held by the camera operator, rather than fixed to a camera mount such as a tripod or dolly.

hard light

Direct, undiffused light; the result is the casting of harsh, distinct shadows.

hard news

Refers to news stories that examine events which affect society as a whole (e.g., national politics and international relations).

high angle

A shot in which the camera is placed higher than the filmed actor or object, so that the camera looks down on the actor or object.

high definition television (HDTV)

A broadcast technology in which the number of scan lines of the video image is increased and the size of the pixels decreased (as well as reshaped)--resulting in a, clearer, better defined image.

high-key lighting

A lighting style in which the ratio in intensity of key light to fill light is small. The result is an evenly lit set, with a low contrast between the bright and dark areas of the set.

historical world (historical reality)

The reality that is processed, selected, ordered, and interpreted by nonfiction television programs.

hypodermic needle theory

An effects theory which purports that the viewer is passive, and directly and immediately affected by what he/she sees on television.

hue

A specific color from within the visible spectrum of white light: e.g., red, green, blue.

hypercardioid microphone

A highly unidirectional microphone, for which the pickup pattern is narrower than that of a cardioid microphone. So-called "shotgun" microphones have a hypercardioid pattern.

icon

Generally speaking, an object that represents a theme or an aspect of the character or the like. In the specific context of semiotics, a type of sign, wherein the signifier physically resembles the signified. For example, a photograph (signifier) is a mechanical reproduction of what is photographed (signified).

iconography

The objects that signify character and themes of the narrative.

ideological criticism

An area of television criticism, concerned with class and gender representation, that studies society's competing discourses and the position of the individual within society.

illusion of depth

The ability of the two-dimensional television image to create an illusion whereby space seems to recede into the image. A telephoto lens creates a small illusion of depth and a wide-angle lens creates a large one.

improvisation

Technique of method acting style used mostly in rehearsal; the actor puts him/herself into the mind of the character, places the character into imagined situations and proceeds to invent dialogue and action.

indexical sign (index)

In semiotics, a type of sign in which the signifier is physically caused by the signified. For example, where there is smoke, there is fire. Thus the signifier (smoke) is physically caused by the signified (fire).

infrastructure

See the Marxist definition of base.

interactive mode

Type of television text in which the historical world is mixed with that of the video/film maker--according to Bill Nichols's approach to nonfiction television and film. This occurs in one of two ways: the social actor is brought into a television studio; and/or a representative of television enters the historical world to provoke a response from social actors. In another context, interactive is coming to refer to the capacity of the viewer to respond to or affect what is seen on television, for example, through home shopping services.

interior scenes

Scenes set inside, in particular on studio sets, though also including location interiors.

intertextuality

The intertextual, self-reflexive quality--as when one television text (e.g., a commercial) refers to another (e.g., a program or commercial) or to other types of media texts.

jump cut

An editing technique wherein one shot does not match the preceding shot, resulting in a disruptive gap in space and/or time.

key light

In the three-point lighting system, the main source of illumination and the most intense light on the set. It is normally positioned above the actor's head, and several feet in front of him or her.

Keyframe

In animation, the essential frames used to construct a character's movement. If the animation is computer aided, the animator designs the keyframes and the computer automatically generates the frames in between (see tweening).

keying

An special effects process, specific to video, in which an image or text is inserted into another image. See chroma key.

kinescope

A film copy of a television program; made by aiming the film camera at a television screen. Used during the early years of television (before videotape) to record programs that were broadcast live.

laugh track

A soundtrack of pre-recorded laughter, usually added in the post-production process to a comedy program with no studio audience.

lavaliere microphone

A small microphone often clipped to a performer's tie or shirt.

lead

In news stories, the reporter's opening comments--designed to capture viewer attention.

letterbox

A process by which a widescreen film is presented on video. The top and bottom of the video frame is blackened, and the widescreen film frame is reduced to fit into this frame-within-the-video-frame. Also used to present high definition video on conventional TV sets.

lighting color

The color of a light source, which may be manipulated with gels.

lighting diffusion

The hardness or softness of a light source. Hard light casts a sharp, definite shadow.

lighting direction

The positioning of lights relative to the object being shot. The norm for lighting direction is three-point lighting.

lighting intensity

The power of a light source. Regarding the relative intensity of lighting sources, see three-point lighting.

linear perspective

A method of drawing or painting that converts the three dimensions of reality into two dimensions. Originally developed during the European Renaissance, it formed the foundation for how lenses represent a visual field.

lighting color

Light may be "colored" by placing a filter or gelatin in front of a light source.

lighting direction

The direction from which a light is shining--e.g., lighting from below, backlighting.

limited effects theory

A type of communication theory (e.g., social learning theory, vicarious catharsis theory) that regards media as having conditional influences on the viewer; due to intervening variables, the effects of media on the viewer are limited.

lip sync

Synchronizing a performance to recorded speech or music; most frequently found in music videos, wherein the performers mouth the words to the pre-recorded song while they are filmed or videotaped.

live-on-tape

A video production that is recorded live, with most of the editing done while the scenes transpire (rather than in post-production).

location settings

Pre-existing settings that are chosen as backgrounds for television programs.

long shot (LS)

A framing that presents entire objects or persons--situating them in a setting.

loudness (volume)

How loud or soft a sound is. See dynamic range.

low angle

A shot in which the camera is lower than the filmed object; thus the camera looks up at the actor/object.

low-key lighting

A lighting style wherein the key light is so much more intense than the fill light that there is a high contrast between bright and dark areas. The bright areas are especially bright and the dark areas are very dark.

luminance

The brightness or darkness of a color. See chrominance and saturation.

magnetic tape

A ribbon of plastic with a coating on it that is sensitive to magnetic impulses created by electricity. In analog technology, these magnetic impulses are modulated on the tape in a fashion parallel to the sound wave's modulation. In digital technology, magnetic tape is used to record sounds encoded as a string of numbers that will later be converted into sound.

manifest content

In a content analysis of a television text, the characters and their actions.

masking

A non-anamorphic widescreen film process. In masked films, blackened horizontal bands are placed across the top and bottom of a 1:1.33 frame, resulting in a wider aspect ratio of 1:1.85.

match cut

An editing principle of the continuity system which maintains continuity by fitting ("matching") the space and time of one shot to that of the preceding shot.

match-on-action

An editing technique of the continuity system wherein a cut is placed in the midst of an action, so that the action from one shot continues to the next.

means of production

Marx's term for the locations (factories and the like) at which goods are produced and men and women labor.

media text

Any item in the mass media (e.g., a TV commercial or program, film, magazine, interview, public appearance, etc.).

medium close up (MCU)

A framing in between medium shot and close-up.

medium long shot (MLS)

A framing in between long shot and medium shot.

medium shot (MS)

A framing that presents a moderately close view of an object or person. Conventionally, a TV medium shot of a person is from the thighs or knees up. Two common types of medium shots are the two shot and the three shot.

method

Naturalist performance style which encourages the actor to become the character, at which point the gestures/dialects necessary for the performance will emerge organically; approaches used to achieve this union between actor and character are emotional memory, sense memory and improvisation.

microphone (mike)

Device used to record sound. The pickup pattern of a microphone may be omnidirectional or cardioid. See also lavaliere microphone and hypercardioid microphone.

mise-en-scene

The staging of the action for the camera. All of the physical objects in front of the camera and the arrangement of those objects by the director. The organization of setting, costuming, lighting, and actor movement.

mixer

A machine that blends various sound sources.

mode of production

An aesthetic style of shooting that relies upon a particular technology and is governed by a certain economic system. Television's two principal modes of production are single-camera and multiple-camera.

mode of representation

Manner in which a nonnarrative television program depicts historical reality and addresses itself to the viewer about that version of reality; modes include expository, interactive, observational and reflexive.

motion-caption device

A system by which the movement of three-dimensional objects or humans is traced by a computer.

motivation

In narrative structure, a catalyst that starts the story's progression--a reason for the story to begin (usually a character's lack or desire).

MOW (Movie of the Week)

Industry shorthand for any film produced specifically for television and not shown initially in theaters.

multicasting

In digital TV, individual broadcast stations may simultaneously transmit four or more programs.

multiple-camera production

A mode of production unique to television wherein two or more cameras are used to record the scene, enabling simultaneous and/or post-production editing. The mode used in most sitcoms and all soap operas, game shows, sports programs, and newscasts.

multi-track recording

In the sound editing process, recordings are digitally or electronically divided into four (or many more) separate tracks. On each is a sound category (dialogue, music, effects) separated form the others, allowing the sound editor to manipulate individual soundtracks before producing a finished soundtrack.

music television

Generally refers to a system, such as a cable or satellite service (e.g., MTV, CMT), through which musical broadcast material is delivered.

music video

A visual representation of or accompaniment to a song or other musical selection that usually exists independently as a recording.

musical director

Person who selects and arranges the music for a program.

mythic analysis

An interpretive strategy of genre analysis that approaches genres in terms of archetypes, stories shared by large segments of a culture which offer the researcher evidence of that society's thought process.

narration (voice-over)

When a character's or omniscient narrator's voice is heard over an image.

narrative enigma

A question that underpins a story and will (in classical films) or will not (in soap opera) be answered at the conclusion.

narrative function

A specific action or an attribute of a character in a narrative--according to the narrative theory of V.I. Propp.

narrative image

A particular representation of a program created by advertising and promotion in order to entice viewers.

National Television System Committee (NTSC)

A committee established by various manufacturers of television equipment in order to develop a set of standards that would render color transmission and reception compatible to black-and-white television sets. The initials NTSC are also commonly used to refer to the 525-line broadcast standard used in the U.S.

naturalistic animation

An aesthetic tenet of animation which advocates that animation replicate live-action film/video as much as possible; cartoon characters should resemble objects in reality and our view of these characters/objects should resemble that of a camera. The opposite of abstract animation.

naturalistic performance

Performance style in which the actor attempts to create a character that the audience will accept as a plausible and believable human being, rather than an actor trying to portray someone.

negotiated reading

In cultural studies, the interpretation of the text that partially accepts and partially rejects the meanings that the text emphasizes.

NLE

See nonlinear editing.

nondiegetic sound

Sound that does not occur in the diegetic space (the characters' world), such as music that is added in post-production.

nonlinear editing (NLE)

Editing performed on a computer, in which shots do not have to be placed one after the other (i.e., in a linear fashion).

non-narrative television

Televisual texts (e.g., news and sports programs, game shows, some commercials) that present reality to us without using conventional narrative structures. Instead, nonnarrative television relies on expository, interactive, observational, and/or reflexive modes of representation.

normal lens

A type of focal length that seems to most closely approximate the human eye's range of vision (in actuality the range of vision is narrower in a normal focal length lens, with less illusion of depth).

NTSC

See National Television System Committee.

objective correlative

An object which comes to represent an aspect of a character--e.g., Bart Simpson's skateboard representing his carefree and spontaneous lifestyle.

observational mode

Type of television text wherein a television producer's presence is not obvious to the viewer, and his or her manipulation of the historical world is minimal.

omnidirectional microphone

A microphone that is able to pick up sound equally from all directions.

180 rule

An editing principle of the continuity (or 180) system which dictates that cameras remain on one side of the axis of action in order to preserve the scene's spatial continuity and screen direction.

oppositional reading

In cultural studies, the interpretation of the text that is wholly contrary to the text's dominant meanings.

overhead boom microphone

Held on a long arm by a boom operator, positioned above the actors' heads and out of view of the camera, it is equipped with a hypercardioid microphone so that sound from the direction it is pointed will be recorded and ambient sound will be minimized.

package

In television journalism, an 80-105 second news story shot in the field and filed by a reporter.

pan-and-scan (scanning)

A process by which a widescreen, anamorphic film (1:2.35) is reduced to television's smaller 1:1.33 aspect ratio. The most significant part of the original frame is selected, and the pan-and-scan frame can slide, or "scan," left or right across the original frame.

panning

The action of physically rotating the camera left and right, on an imaginary vertical axis. Only the tripod head is moved, not the entire support. Pan also refers to the resulting horizontal movement of the image.

pantomime

A style of naturalist performance in which the actor presents the character with specific gestures that, through convention, represent specific emotions or actions.

paradigmatic structure

A pattern of association, of potential substitution. See also syntagmatic.

paradigmatic structure

In semiotics, a manner in which signs are organized and meaning created. Paradigmatic structures create meaning through association, in contrast to syntagmatic structures which create meaning through sequence or chronological order. E.g., in baseball, the players that might replace one another in the batting line-up are in paradigmatic relationship to one another. The television viewer flows syntagmatically through the evening's programs (one after another) and surfs paradigmatically across the channels (hitting that remote control) to view what is on concurrently.

pedestalling

The raising or lowering of the camera on the vertical post of the camera support. Pedestal is also the term given to the moveable camera support (the shaft in the center of a dolly) used in studio television production.

perfect fit

In the study of television stars, a matching of a particular role's characteristics to a star's polysemy.

phosphors

See pixels.

pickup pattern

In microphones, the shape of the space in which the microphone is sensitive to sound. Common patterns include omnidirectional and cardioid.

pilot

A program, sometimes a made-for-TV movie, which introduces a new series.

pitch

How high or low a sound is. See frequency response.

pixels (phosphors)

Phosphorescent dots, arranged in horizontal lines on the television screen, which produce the video image when struck by a beam from the electron gun.

play-by-play announcer

A type of television sports announcer, usually a professional broadcaster, who functions as narrator of the game's events, keeps track of game time, prompts the comments of the color announcers, reiterates the score, modulates the passage of time, and may lead into commercial breaks.

point-of-view shot

A shot in which the camera is physically situated very close to a character's position; thus the resulting shot approximates the character's point-of-view.

polysemy

Literally, many meanings. Refers to television's ability to communicate contradictory or ambivalent meanings simultaneously.

post-production

Everything (e.g., editing, sound effects) that transpires after the program itself has been shot.

preferred reading

In cultural studies, the interpretation of the text that is stressed by the text itself. Marxists presume this reading to align with the dominant ideology.

pre-production

The written planning stages of the program (script preparation, budgeting, etc.).

problematic fit

In the study of television stars, a complete mismatch of a particular role's characteristics with a star's polysemy.

product placement

The appearance of a trademarked product (e.g., Budweiser beer or Apple computers) in a program-when the sponsor pays for such placement.

production

The shooting of the program itself.

proletariat

In Marxist terms, the working class; this least powerful group works to survive, selling its labor to the bourgeoisie.

promotion

A type of media text (e.g., an appearance on a talk show) generated by the star and his or her representatives in a deliberate attempt to shape viewer perception of the star.

pseudomonologue

Type of interview in which the interviewer and his or her questions are not evident in the text; only the interviewee's answers are included.

public domain

Material (e.g., a piece of music) that is not copyrighted, which may be used in TV programs without paying a fee or royalty.

publicity

A type of media text (e.g., an unauthorized biography) that presents information outside the control of the star and his or her representatives.

pulling focus

See racking focus.

racking focus (pulling focus)

Shifting the focus from foreground to background, or vice versa.

rating

In the context of TV ratings, the percentage of all homes with television sets that are tuned to a specific program. Usually used in conjunction with ratings share.

ratings

Based on a random sample of television viewers, the calculated amount and percentage of viewers watching a particular program on a particular station.

reading

The viewer's active interpretation of a text--whether written (e.g., a book) or visual (e.g., a television program or film).

re-establishing shot

A long shot which once again positions the character(s) within the environment of the scene, helping to re-establish character and/or setting; also used as a transitional device.

reflexive mode

Type of nonnarrative television text which draws the viewer's attention to the processes, techniques and conventions of television production.

remote control device (RCD)

A device that allows one to operate a television without directly touching it.

repertory

Naturalist performance style in which the actor constructs a performance by selecting particular gestures and spoken dialects.

rhythm

The timing of speech, music, sound effects, or editing.

rotoscope

A device used in animation wherein a single frame from a live-action film is rear-projected onto a light table with a semi-opaque glass in the center; the animator traces the images cast by the film onto a cel; the tracings are rephotographed, resulting in an animated film that duplicates live-action images.

royalty

A fee paid for the use of copyrighted material.

ruling class

Marx's term for the social class in control of a society's means of production; the class which controls the means of production controls the society overall.

saturation (chroma or chrominance)

In terms of television's image quality, the level of a color's purity (or how much or little grayness is mixed with the color).

scan line

Lines of glowing pixels that make up the television image. In the NTSC system used in the United States, there are 525 lines in the TV image. PAL, developed in Germany, and SECAM, from France, are 625-line systems.

scanning

See pan-and-scan.

scene

The smallest piece of the narrative action; a single narrative event that occurs in continuous space over continuous time.

scientific method

An empirical approach which advocates developing research questions and hypotheses based on an established body of theoretical knowledge, investigating them with replicable methodology, and explaining the results in terms of its contribution to the established body of knowledge.

Scopitones

Produced in the 1960s, short films of performances by popular musicians presented on coin-operated machines akin to jukeboxes.

screen direction