Glossary: M-R

magnetic tape

A ribbon of plastic with a coating on it that is sensitive to magnetic impulses created by electricity. In analog technology, these magnetic impulses are modulated on the tape in a fashion parallel to the sound wave's modulation. In digital technology, magnetic tape is used to record sounds encoded as a string of numbers that will later be converted into sound.

manifest content

In a content analysis of a television text, the characters and their actions.

masking

A non-anamorphic widescreen film process. In masked films, blackened horizontal bands are placed across the top and bottom of a 1:1.33 frame, resulting in a wider aspect ratio of 1:1.85.

match cut

An editing principle of the continuity system which maintains continuity by fitting ("matching") the space and time of one shot to that of the preceding shot.

match-on-action

An editing technique of the

wherein a cut is placed in the midst of an action, so that the action from one shot continues to the next.

means of production

Marx's term for the locations (factories and the like) at which goods are produced and men and women labor.

media text

Any item in the mass media (e.g., a TV commercial or program, film, magazine, interview, public appearance, etc.).

medium close up (MCU)

A framing in between medium shot and close-up.

medium long shot (MLS)

A framing in between long shot and medium shot.

medium shot (MS)

A framing that presents a moderately close view of an object or person. Conventionally, a TV medium shot of a person is from the thighs or knees up. Two common types of medium shots are the two shot and the three shot.

method

Naturalist performance style which encourages the actor to become the character, at which point the gestures/dialects necessary for the performance will emerge organically; approaches used to achieve this union between actor and character are emotional memory, sense memory and improvisation.

microphone (mike)

Device used to record sound. The pickup pattern of a microphone may be omnidirectional or cardioid. See also lavaliere microphone and hypercardioid microphone.

mise-en-scene

The staging of the action for the camera. All of the physical objects in front of the camera and the arrangement of those objects by the director. The organization of setting, costuming, lighting, and actor movement.

mixer

A machine that blends various sound sources.

mode of production

An aesthetic style of shooting that relies upon a particular technology and is governed by a certain economic system. Television's two principal modes of production are single-camera and multiple-camera.

mode of representation

Manner in which a nonnarrative television program depicts historical reality and addresses itself to the viewer about that version of reality; modes include expository, interactive, observational and reflexive.

motion-caption device

A system by which the movement of three-dimensional objects or humans is traced by a computer.

motivation

In narrative structure, a catalyst that starts the story's progression--a reason for the story to begin (usually a character's lack or desire).

MOW (Movie of the Week)

Industry shorthand for any film produced specifically for television and not shown initially in theaters.

multicasting

In digital TV, individual broadcast stations may simultaneously transmit four or more programs.

multiple-camera production

A mode of production unique to television wherein two or more cameras are used to record the scene, enabling simultaneous and/or post-production editing. The mode used in most sitcoms and all soap operas, game shows, sports programs, and newscasts.

multi-track recording

In the sound editing process, recordings are digitally or electronically divided into four (or many more) separate tracks. On each is a sound category (dialogue, music, effects) separated form the others, allowing the sound editor to manipulate individual soundtracks before producing a finished soundtrack.

music television

Generally refers to a system, such as a cable or satellite service (e.g., MTV, CMT), through which musical broadcast material is delivered.

music video

A visual representation of or accompaniment to a song or other musical selection that usually exists independently as a recording.

musical director

Person who selects and arranges the music for a program.

mythic analysis

An interpretive strategy of genre analysis that approaches genres in terms of archetypes, stories shared by large segments of a culture which offer the researcher evidence of that society's thought process.

narration (voice-over)

When a character's or omniscient narrator's voice is heard over an image.

narrative enigma

A question that underpins a story and will (in classical films) or will not (in soap opera) be answered at the conclusion.

narrative function

A specific action or an attribute of a character in a narrative--according to the narrative theory of V.I. Propp.

narrative image

A particular representation of a program created by advertising and promotion in order to entice viewers.

National Television System Committee (NTSC)

A committee established by various manufacturers of television equipment in order to develop a set of standards that would render color transmission and reception compatible to black-and-white television sets. The initials NTSC are also commonly used to refer to the 525-line broadcast standard used in the U.S.

naturalistic animation

An aesthetic tenet of animation which advocates that animation replicate live-action film/video as much as possible; cartoon characters should resemble objects in reality and our view of these characters/objects should resemble that of a camera. The opposite of abstract animation.

naturalistic performance

Performance style in which the actor attempts to create a character that the audience will accept as a plausible and believable human being, rather than an actor trying to portray someone.

negotiated reading

In cultural studies, the interpretation of the text that partially accepts and partially rejects the meanings that the text emphasizes.

NLE

See nonlinear editing.

nondiegetic sound

Sound that does not occur in the diegetic space (the characters' world), such as music that is added in post-production.

nonlinear editing (NLE)

Editing performed on a computer, in which shots do not have to be placed one after the other (i.e., in a linear fashion).

non-narrative television

Televisual texts (e.g., news and sports programs, game shows, some commercials) that present reality to us without using conventional narrative structures. Instead, nonnarrative television relies on expository, interactive, observational, and/or reflexive modes of representation.

normal lens

A type of focal length that seems to most closely approximate the human eye's range of vision (in actuality the range of vision is narrower in a normal focal length lens, with less illusion of depth).

NTSC

See National Television System Committee.

objective correlative

An object which comes to represent an aspect of a character--e.g., Bart Simpson's skateboard representing his carefree and spontaneous lifestyle.

observational mode

Type of television text wherein a television producer's presence is not obvious to the viewer, and his or her manipulation of the historical world is minimal.

omnidirectional microphone

A microphone that is able to pick up sound equally from all directions.

180 rule

An editing principle of the continuity (or 180) system which dictates that cameras remain on one side of the axis of action in order to preserve the scene's spatial continuity and screen direction.

oppositional reading

In cultural studies, the interpretation of the text that is wholly contrary to the text's dominant meanings.

overhead boom microphone

Held on a long arm by a boom operator, positioned above the actors' heads and out of view of the camera, it is equipped with a hypercardioid microphone so that sound from the direction it is pointed will be recorded and ambient sound will be minimized.

package

In television journalism, an 80-105 second news story shot in the field and filed by a reporter.

pan-and-scan (scanning)

A process by which a widescreen, anamorphic film (1:2.35) is reduced to television's smaller 1:1.33 aspect ratio. The most significant part of the original frame is selected, and the pan-and-scan frame can slide, or "scan," left or right across the original frame.

panning

The action of physically rotating the camera left and right, on an imaginary vertical axis. Only the tripod head is moved, not the entire support. Pan also refers to the resulting horizontal movement of the image.

pantomime

A style of naturalist performance in which the actor presents the character with specific gestures that, through convention, represent specific emotions or actions.

paradigmatic structure

A pattern of association, of potential substitution. See also syntagmatic.

paradigmatic structure

In semiotics, a manner in which signs are organized and meaning created. Paradigmatic structures create meaning through association, in contrast to syntagmatic structures which create meaning through sequence or chronological order. E.g., in baseball, the players that might replace one another in the batting line-up are in paradigmatic relationship to one another. The television viewer flows syntagmatically through the evening's programs (one after another) and surfs paradigmatically across the channels (hitting that remote control) to view what is on concurrently.

pedestalling

The raising or lowering of the camera on the vertical post of the camera support. Pedestal is also the term given to the moveable camera support (the shaft in the center of a dolly) used in studio television production.

perfect fit

In the study of television stars, a matching of a particular role's characteristics to a star's polysemy.

phosphors

See pixels.

pickup pattern

In microphones, the shape of the space in which the microphone is sensitive to sound. Common patterns include omnidirectional and cardioid.

pilot

A program, sometimes a made-for-TV movie, which introduces a new series.

pitch

How high or low a sound is. See frequency response.

pixels (phosphors)

Phosphorescent dots, arranged in horizontal lines on the television screen, which produce the video image when struck by a beam from the electron gun.

play-by-play announcer

A type of television sports announcer, usually a professional broadcaster, who functions as narrator of the game's events, keeps track of game time, prompts the comments of the color announcers, reiterates the score, modulates the passage of time, and may lead into commercial breaks.

point-of-view shot

A shot in which the camera is physically situated very close to a character's position; thus the resulting shot approximates the character's point-of-view.

polysemy

Literally, many meanings. Refers to television's ability to communicate contradictory or ambivalent meanings simultaneously.

post-production

Everything (e.g., editing, sound effects) that transpires after the program itself has been shot.

preferred reading

In cultural studies, the interpretation of the text that is stressed by the text itself. Marxists presume this reading to align with the dominant ideology.

pre-production

The written planning stages of the program (script preparation, budgeting, etc.).

problematic fit

In the study of television stars, a complete mismatch of a particular role's characteristics with a star's polysemy.

product placement

The appearance of a trademarked product (e.g., Budweiser beer or Apple computers) in a program-when the sponsor pays for such placement.

production

The shooting of the program itself.

proletariat

In Marxist terms, the working class; this least powerful group works to survive, selling its labor to the bourgeoisie.

promotion

A type of media text (e.g., an appearance on a talk show) generated by the star and his or her representatives in a deliberate attempt to shape viewer perception of the star.

pseudomonologue

Type of interview in which the interviewer and his or her questions are not evident in the text; only the interviewee's answers are included.

public domain

Material (e.g., a piece of music) that is not copyrighted, which may be used in TV programs without paying a fee or royalty.

publicity

A type of media text (e.g., an unauthorized biography) that presents information outside the control of the star and his or her representatives.

pulling focus

See racking focus.

racking focus (pulling focus)

Shifting the focus from foreground to background, or vice versa.

rating

In the context of TV ratings, the percentage of all homes with television sets that are tuned to a specific program. Usually used in conjunction with ratings share.

ratings

Based on a random sample of television viewers, the calculated amount and percentage of viewers watching a particular program on a particular station.

reading

The viewer's active interpretation of a text--whether written (e.g., a book) or visual (e.g., a television program or film).

re-establishing shot

A long shot which once again positions the character(s) within the environment of the scene, helping to re-establish character and/or setting; also used as a transitional device.

reflexive mode

Type of nonnarrative television text which draws the viewer's attention to the processes, techniques and conventions of television production.

remote control device (RCD)

A device that allows one to operate a television without directly touching it.

repertory

Naturalist performance style in which the actor constructs a performance by selecting particular gestures and spoken dialects.

rhythm

The timing of speech, music, sound effects, or editing.

rotoscope

A device used in animation wherein a single frame from a live-action film is rear-projected onto a light table with a semi-opaque glass in the center; the animator traces the images cast by the film onto a cel; the tracings are rephotographed, resulting in an animated film that duplicates live-action images.

royalty

A fee paid for the use of copyrighted material.

ruling class

Marx's term for the social class in control of a society's means of production; the class which controls the means of production controls the society overall.